Table 1.
Overview of methodologies, noise modeling/measuring approaches, and frequency ranges in studies on toroidal propeller noise. Abbreviations: FW–H: Ffowcs Williams–Hawkings Analogy, BL: Boundary Layer Source Model, BEM: Boundary-Element Method, BB: Broadband.
| First author (year) | Method1 | Noise model/measurement | Noise components2 | Frequency range | ... |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Li (2024), [7] | Simulation | Farassat 1A (FW–H) | Tonal only | – | ... |
| Lee (2025), [6] | Simulation | Proudman + BL model | BB only | – | ... |
| Wei (2024), [8] | Hybrid | FW–H + BEM/mic ring | Tonal + partial BB | 0–2 kHz | ... |
| du Plessis (2024), [9] | Experiment | Single microphone | Tonal + BB | 50–1250 Hz | ... |
| Shima (2024), [10] | Experiment | Multi-microphone setup | Tonal + BB | Full band | ... |
1Simulation = purely numerical study; Experiment = measurement-based study; Hybrid = combination of simulation and experiment. 2“Tonal” refers to blade-passing frequency components and harmonics; “BB” (broadband) refers to turbulence-induced noise without tonal components.
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